PA Programming & Analysis

Group A — Assembly

Group B — Business

Office, professional services, banks, civic admin. 150 SF/occ gross.

Group E — Educational

K-12. 20 SF/occ net (classroom), 50 SF/occ net (shop/lab).

Group F — Factory

Group H — High Hazard (above MAQ)

Group I — Institutional

Group M — Mercantile

Retail, wholesale stores. 60 SF/occ gross.

Group R — Residential

Group S — Storage

Group U — Utility/Misc

Sheds, fences, towers — typically accessory.

Construction Types (IBC §602)

Allowable Area formula (IBC §506)

Aa = (At + (NS × If) + (NS × Is))

• At = Tabular area per Table 506.2
• If = Frontage increase: [F/P − 0.25] × W/30, max 75% increase
• Is = Sprinkler increase: 200% (3× base) for full NFPA 13

Sprinkler bonus

• Full NFPA 13: unlocks all IBC trade-offs (area, height, fire ratings reduction, longer travel)
• NFPA 13R: residential up to 4 stories
• NFPA 13D: 1-2 family dwelling (life safety only)

Frontage requirements (§506.3)

Public way or open space ≥20 ft wide on ≥25% of building perimeter for frontage increase.

Height/Story increase

Sprinklers: +20 ft + 1 story per §504.3-504.4 (varies by occupancy)

Mixed occupancies (§508)

• Accessory: ≤10% of major occupancy, no separation
• Separated: per Table 508.4 separation requirements
• Nonseparated: most stringent requirements apply throughout

Three components (IBC §1003)

1. Exit Access — from occupied space to exit entrance (corridors)
2. Exit — protected egress (exit stair, horizontal exit, exterior exit door)
3. Exit Discharge — from exit to public way

Occupant Load (IBC Table 1004.5)

Number of exits required (IBC Table 1006.3.2)

Single-exit spaces allowed

Limited occupancy + short travel — see Table 1006.2.1 (e.g., R-2 with ≤4 units per story).

Travel distance limits (sprinklered)

Common Path of Egress Travel (CPET)

Distance to choice of 2 exits. Limited 75-100 ft sprinklered Group B.

Dead-end limit (B sprinklered)

50 ft. Non-sprinklered: 20 ft.

Egress widths (sprinklered factors)

• Stairs: 0.3 in/occ
• Level (doors, corridors): 0.2 in/occ
• Non-sprinklered: 0.7 stairs / 0.4 level (most)

Minimum corridor widths

• General: 44"
• Group E + 100+ occ: 72"
• Hospital (I-2): 96"

Door swing direction

Required in direction of egress travel when:

• Occupant load 50+
• Group H any
• Horizontal exit
• Exit discharge

Accessible route

• Width: 36" min (32" allowed for short distance ≤24")
• Cross slope: 1:48 max (2.08%)
• Running slope: 1:20 walking surface; 1:12 ramp
• Passing space: 60" wide at intervals or continuous

Ramps

• Slope: 1:12 max (8.33%)
• Max rise: 30" per run
• Landings: top, bottom, every direction change, intermediate at 30" rise
• Landing size: 60" × 60" min
• Handrails: required if rise >6" or >72" long, both sides, 34-38" high
• Edge protection: curb, barrier, or extended surface

Turning space

• 60" diameter circle or T-shape (60" × 36" arms)
• Required at: dead ends, accessible rooms requiring 180° turn

Reach ranges

• Forward unobstructed: 15"-48" high
• Side unobstructed: 15"-48" high
• Obstructed reach: lower max

Parking (ADA)

• Van access aisle: 8 ft (96") wide
• Car accessible aisle: 5 ft (60") wide
• 1 van per 6 accessible spaces

Toilet rooms

• Accessible stall: 60" × 56" min (wall-hung WC) or 59" floor-mount
• WC centerline: 16"-18" from side wall
• Grab bars: rear 36" min, side 42" long
• Door: 32" min clear, swing out
• Lavatory: 27" min knee clearance, 30" wide, 19" deep
• Mirror: 40" max to bottom of reflecting surface

Doors

• Clear width: 32" min (measured at 90° open)
• Maneuvering clearance: per push/pull side and approach direction
• Operating force: 5 lb interior, 8.5 lb exterior, 15 lb panic hardware
• Hardware: lever or push/pull (not knob — wrist twist)
• Threshold: ½" max with bevel

Drinking fountains

Paired: 1 high (38"-43" spout standing), 1 low (≤36" spout wheelchair). Or single hi-lo unit.

Stairs (ADA — when required)

• Risers 4"-7" uniform
• Treads 11" min uniform
• Nosings rounded or beveled
• Handrails both sides, 34"-38" high, continuous, extending 12" beyond top + 12"+depth beyond bottom
• Visual contrast on nosings (low vision)

Site information layers

• Boundary survey: legal lot lines, easements, encroachments
• Topographic survey: contours (2 ft typical), elevations, existing features
• Utilities: location, capacity, service points
• Soils: geotechnical report (borings, bearing capacity, water table)
• Environmental: Phase I ESA (records review, site visit, no sampling)
• Climate: temperature, wind rose, solar path, precipitation
• Vegetation: trees to preserve, invasive species, ecological value
• Hydrology: floodplain (FEMA FIRM), watershed, drainage patterns

Zoning fundamentals

• Use districts: residential, commercial, industrial, mixed, special
• By-right uses vs conditional uses (CUP) vs prohibited
• Bulk standards: setbacks, height, FAR, lot coverage, density
• Overlay districts: layered on base (historic, floodplain, airport, TOD)
• PUD (Planned Unit Development): custom zoning for specific project

FAR (Floor Area Ratio)

FAR × Lot Area = Maximum Floor Area

• FAR 2.5 on 10,000 SF lot = 25,000 SF max
• Typically above-grade floor area only (check ordinance)
• Some exclusions: below-grade, mechanical penthouses, etc.

Setbacks

• Front, side, rear yards
• Different for principal vs accessory structures
• Reduced setbacks possible via PUD or variance

Variances vs CUP vs Rezoning

Nonconforming use

Legal when established, no longer permitted — generally grandfathered with restrictions:

• No expansion
• No resumption if discontinued (often 6-12 months)
• No rebuild if destroyed >50%
• May require amortization (phase-out)

Pre-design / Programming activities

• Goals & objectives
• User analysis (who, when, how many)
• Space program (functions, areas, adjacencies)
• Site analysis
• Code & regulatory review
• Sustainability goals
• Budget & schedule
• Risk/constraint identification

Program data per space

Net-to-Gross efficiency (typical)

Gross SF = Net SF ÷ Efficiency

Bubble diagrams

Visual organization of adjacencies + rough size. Each bubble = program space, sized proportionally; lines = required adjacencies.

Stacking diagrams

Vertical program organization — which functions on which floors. Consider:

• Public/private floors
• Floor-to-floor heights by program
• MEP shaft alignment
• Structural grid
• Vertical circulation placement

Floor-to-floor heights (typical)

Design process iteration

1. Test fit: program in proposed massing
2. Adjacency test: verify required adjacencies achievable
3. Code test: occupancy, egress, area, height feasible
4. MEP test: shafts align, plenums adequate
5. Structural test: grid works with program
6. Cost test: matches Owner budget

Site selection priorities (LEED LT/SS credits)

• Infill or brownfield (avoid greenfield, sprawl)
• Transit access (reduce VMT)
• Walkability (active mobility, neighborhood services)
• Existing infrastructure (sewer, water, electric)
• Avoid: prime farmland, sensitive habitats, floodplains, steep slopes

Stormwater management (BMPs)

Structural:

• Detention basins (release at pre-development rate)
• Retention basins (permanent retention)
• Bioswales (vegetated drainage)
• Permeable paving (infiltration)
• Green roofs (storage + ET)
• Rain gardens (small-scale infiltration)

Nonstructural:

• Preserved vegetation
• Native landscaping
• Low-impact development principles
• Disconnected impervious surfaces

Stormwater regulation

• EPA NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System) — MS4 permits for jurisdictions
• §402 discharge permits
• §404 wetland fill permits (USACE)
• State + local additional

Heat island mitigation

• Cool roofs (high SRI, white or reflective)
• Cool paving (high albedo)
• Tree canopy (shading, ET cooling)
• Green roofs
• Reduced parking (less impervious)

Vegetation strategies

• Native plants: low water, low maintenance, supports pollinators, biodiversity
• Tree preservation: drip-line fencing, protect critical root zone, arborist supervision
• Replacement: mature trees take decades to replace; protect during construction

Solar access & passive design

Solar path at 40° N latitude:

• Summer solstice noon: ~73.5° altitude
• Winter solstice noon: ~26.5° altitude

Building orientation (cold climate):

• Long axis E-W
• Primary glazing south
• Overhangs sized to block summer sun, admit winter
• Overhang depth ≈ 50% glazing height (temperate)

Hot climate:

• Minimize east/west glazing (low-angle, hard to shade)
• Light-colored exterior (high albedo)
• Shaded outdoor spaces

Wind & microclimate

• Prevailing wind: generally W/SW continental US (varies)
• Coastal: on-shore breezes
• Valleys: channeled winds
• Mountains: downslope winds
• Always check site-specific wind rose

Light pollution control

• Full cut-off fixtures (0% above horizontal)
• Shielding
• IES dark sky compliance
• Many jurisdictions adopting dark sky ordinances
• LEED v4.1 SS credit available

Macro climate data sources

• ASHRAE Climate Design Conditions
• NOAA / National Weather Service
• Local airport historical data
• Climate consultants (specialty)

Key climate metrics

IECC Climate Zones

Sub-classifications: A (moist), B (dry), C (marine)

Microclimate factors

• Topography: hills block/channel wind, sun exposure varies
• Vegetation: cooling, shading, wind reduction
• Water bodies: moderate temperature, increase humidity
• Built environment: urban heat island, wind tunnels
• Soil type: dark/wet absorbs heat, light/dry reflects
• Aspect (slope direction): N slopes cooler (N hemisphere)
• Prevailing wind: site-specific from wind rose

Urban heat island

Cities 2-7°F warmer than surrounding rural areas:

• Dark surfaces (roofs, pavement) absorb heat
• Reduced vegetation
• Anthropogenic heat (cars, AC exhaust)
• Reduced wind (canyon effect)

Mitigation: cool roofs, cool pavement, tree canopy, green roofs.

Solar path

At 40° N latitude:

• Summer solstice (June 21) noon: ~73.5° altitude
• Winter solstice (Dec 21) noon: ~26.5° altitude
• Equinoxes noon: ~50° altitude
• Sunrise/sunset varies through year (NE/SE/E/SE/NE)

Wind analysis

Prevailing wind generally W/SW continental US (varies):

• Coastal: on-shore breezes
• Valleys: channeled winds
• Mountains: downslope (katabatic) winds
• Local terrain critical — always check site-specific wind rose

Climate-responsive design strategies

Hurricane wind zones

• HVHZ (High Velocity Hurricane Zone): Miami-Dade, Broward, parts of FL
• Wind speeds: 175+ mph design
• Special impact-resistant glazing or shutters
• Continuous load path from roof to foundation
• Stricter component testing

Seismic zones

• ASCE 7 + USGS maps
• Site class (A-F) from soils
• Spectral acceleration values
• Risk Category × Importance Factor
• Critical for foundation and lateral system design

Survey types

What boundary survey shows

• Legal property lines (per deed)
• Existing easements (utility, access, drainage)
• Encroachments (neighbor's fence, structures)
• Setbacks (per zoning)
• Right-of-way lines
• Monuments and markers found

What topographic survey shows

• Contour lines (typically 1 or 2 ft intervals)
• Spot elevations at key points
• Trees (often >6" caliper, tagged)
• Existing structures
• Utilities (visible — for hidden, need locator)
• Streams, drainage features
• Existing pavement, walks
• Vegetation types

Geotechnical investigation

• Borings (number depends on building size, variability)
• Sampling (split-spoon, undisturbed)
• Standard Penetration Test (SPT) N-values
• Lab testing (classification, strength, consolidation)
• Groundwater levels
• Recommendations for:
  • Foundation type
  • Allowable bearing
  • Settlement estimates
  • Lateral earth pressures
  • Seismic site class
  • Drainage
  • Slope stability
  • Frost depth (if applicable)

Phase I ESA (Environmental Site Assessment)

• Records review (historic, fire insurance maps, agency files)
• Site visit (visual inspection)
• Interviews (current/past owners, occupants)
• Identifies Recognized Environmental Conditions (RECs)
• NO sampling — purely investigative
• ASTM E1527 standard

Phase II ESA

• Sampling and testing (soil, groundwater)
• Triggered by RECs from Phase I
• Determines extent of contamination
• Basis for remediation planning

Phase III ESA (Remediation)

• Active cleanup
• Per regulatory requirements
• Long process and expensive

Brownfield sites

• Documented contamination from prior use
• Often industrial
• Cleanup under CERCLA / RCRA
• Brownfield grants may offset costs
• Predictable: identify, plan, remediate, develop

Wetland delineation

• Required if site has hydrology, soils, vegetation indicators
• Specialist wetland scientist
• 3-parameter test (hydrology, hydric soils, hydrophytic vegetation)
• USACE permit for any disturbance
• Mitigation may be required

Archaeological / cultural resources

• Section 106 review for federally-funded projects
• State preservation officer
• Possible Phase I survey
• Avoid impact when possible
• Mitigation (data recovery) if unavoidable

Endangered species

• US Fish & Wildlife Service consultation
• ESA (Endangered Species Act) compliance
• Habitat assessment may be required
• Critical habitat designation
• Avoid/minimize/mitigate

Floodplain

• FEMA FIRM (Flood Insurance Rate Map)
• 100-year (1% annual chance) zone
• Base Flood Elevation (BFE)
• V-zones (coastal, wave action) more restrictive
• Floodway: no obstruction allowed
• Local floodplain ordinance + NFIP

Site planning considerations

• Building placement: setbacks, views, solar access, prevailing winds
• Vehicle access: street frontage, parking, deliveries
• Pedestrian access: walkways, accessible routes, transit
• Stormwater: drainage, retention/detention
• Utilities: connections, easements, capacity
• Landscape: existing vegetation, planted areas
• Outdoor spaces: courtyards, plazas, terraces
• Service: trash, loading, mechanical equipment
• Future expansion: reserved area, structural provisions

Setback considerations

• Front: street character, neighborhood context
• Side: neighbor privacy, fire separation
• Rear: light/air, gardens
• Buildable area = lot minus setbacks
• Variance for hardship (not financial)

Orientation strategies

Solar access design

• South face for primary glazing (cold + temperate climates)
• Overhang depth ≈ 50% glazing height (temperate)
• Light shelves for deeper daylight
• Avoid east/west glare (low-angle sun)
• Solar envelope analysis for shadow studies

Wind considerations

• Building shape affects wind: streamlined vs blunt
• Building height creates downdrafts at base
• Tall buildings: pedestrian-level wind studies (CFD or wind tunnel)
• Outdoor spaces sheltered from prevailing wind
• Cross-ventilation orientation toward prevailing breeze

Vehicular site design

• Parking: zoning minimums (sometimes maximums in TODs), accessible spaces
• Drive aisles: 24 ft typical (2-way), 12-14 ft (1-way)
• Turning radius: passenger 25 ft, fire truck 45 ft
• Service access: separate from primary entrance ideal
• Loading docks: depressed grade, weather protection
• Bicycle parking: increasingly required, racks + showers

Accessible site design

• Accessible route from public way to entrance
• Cross slope max 1:48 (2.08%)
• Running slope max 1:20 walking, 1:12 ramp
• Surfaces firm, stable, slip-resistant
• Curb ramps at intersections
• Accessible parking with shortest accessible route

Stormwater on site

• Conveyance: gutters, swales, pipes
• Treatment: bioswales, sand filters, ponds
• Storage: detention (release at pre-dev rate), retention (permanent)
• Infiltration: permeable paving, rain gardens, infiltration trenches
• Capture: cisterns for non-potable reuse
• Pre-dev vs post-dev discharge rates regulated

Site lighting

• Functional + safety + aesthetic
• Full cut-off fixtures (dark sky)
• IES classifications
• Light trespass control
• Pedestrian + roadway levels
• LED standard now
• Light pollution + circadian impacts

Landscape integration

• Preserve existing mature trees when possible
• Native plants (low water, support pollinators)
• Drought-tolerant where appropriate
• Stormwater integrated landscape
• Edible landscape considerations
• Maintenance access

Future-proofing

• Reserve area for expansion
• Structural provisions for future vertical addition
• Utility capacity for future demand
• Adaptable program/layouts
• Modular vs custom

Programming phases

1. Establish goals and objectives
2. Collect and analyze facts (Owner needs, user surveys, observations)
3. Uncover and test concepts (organizational principles, themes)
4. Determine needs (spaces, areas, adjacencies)
5. State the problem (synthesis statement for design)

(Per Pena's "Problem Seeking" methodology)

Programming methods

Most projects combine methods.

Program data per space

• Function (activities, purpose)
• Occupants (users, capacity, frequency, type)
• Net area (assignable SF)
• Adjacencies (required, desired, avoid)
• Special needs (acoustics, AV, security, MEP)
• Furniture (quantity, types)
• Equipment (power, weight, special connections)
• Finishes (quality level)
• Daylight/views (required, desired, not needed)
• Privacy / acoustic requirements

Adjacency diagrams

• Visual representation of relationships
• Bubble diagrams: spaces as bubbles, lines = adjacencies
• Matrices: rows × columns scored for adjacency need
• Used for layout development

Net-to-Gross efficiency

Gross SF = Net SF ÷ Efficiency

Stacking diagrams

Vertical program organization:

• Public/private floors
• Adjacencies maintained vertically
• MEP shaft alignment
• Floor-to-floor heights by program
• Vertical circulation placement
• Loading and service vertical access

Test fitting

• Place program in proposed massing
• Verify spaces fit and adjacencies work
• Multiple options tested
• Refine massing based on test fit
• May reveal undersized or oversized envelope

Programming for special facilities

Healthcare:

• Departmental relationships (ED-OR-ICU adjacency)
• Patient flow analysis
• Family/visitor zones
• Staff workflow optimization
• HIPAA/privacy zones

K-12:

• Educational specifications (often from state DOE)
• Age-appropriate (elementary vs MS vs HS)
• Specialty spaces (labs, art, gym, performing arts)
• Administrative + support
• Outdoor learning + play

Lab/Research:

• Containment levels (BSL-1 to BSL-4)
• Equipment requirements (huge variation)
• Flexible utilities
• Casework and benching
• Office vs bench balance

Programming deliverables

• Programming narrative
• Space program (spreadsheet/tabular)
• Adjacency matrix
• Bubble diagrams
• Stacking diagrams (early)
• Cost benchmark
• Schedule baseline
• Recommendations / observations

Zoning structure

• Use districts: residential, commercial, industrial, mixed, special
• By-right uses vs conditional uses (CUP) vs prohibited
• Bulk standards: setbacks, height, FAR, lot coverage, density
• Overlay districts: layered on base (historic, floodplain, airport, TOD)

Bulk standards

FAR calculation

FAR × Lot Area = Max Floor Area

• FAR 2.5 on 10,000 SF lot = 25,000 SF max
• Typically above-grade only (check ordinance)
• Some exclusions: below-grade, mechanical penthouses, etc.

Lot coverage

Building footprint as % of lot:

• Residential typically 30-50% max
• Commercial typically 50-80% max
• Includes accessory structures
• Excludes typically: walkways, surface parking (sometimes)

Building height measurement

Varies by jurisdiction:

• From grade plane to average roof height
• From grade plane to top of parapet (up to 4 ft)
• Excludes mechanical penthouses (if compliant)
• Zoning height may differ from IBC height — check both

Variances

• Hardship from physical site conditions (NOT financial)
• Application to zoning board
• Public hearing
• Granted at zoning board's discretion based on standards
• Cannot grant use variances in some jurisdictions
• "Spot zoning" disfavored

Conditional Use Permit (CUP)

• Specific use allowed IF conditions met
• Example: school in residential zone with parking, screening, hours
• Public hearing
• Approved with specific conditions

Planned Unit Development (PUD)

• Custom zoning for specific project
• Mixed uses, density variations, design flexibility
• Owner provides: open space, design standards, public amenities
• Negotiated approval with detailed PUD ordinance
• Long process but tailored result

Rezoning

• Change zoning classification of property
• Comprehensive plan compliance
• Public hearing + city council
• Major change — high stakes
• Spot rezoning often legally challenged

Nonconforming use

Legal when established, no longer permitted:

• Generally grandfathered with restrictions
• No expansion
• No resumption if discontinued (often 6-12 months)
• No rebuild if destroyed >50%
• May require amortization (phase-out)

Form-based codes

Alternative to traditional Euclidean zoning:

• Regulates building form rather than use
• Standards for setbacks, building envelope, façade
• Promotes traditional neighborhood form
• Increasingly common in mixed-use districts

Approval process

1. Pre-application meeting (informal, recommended)
2. Application submission
3. Staff review
4. Public notice (neighbors, advertisement)
5. Planning Commission (often recommendation only)
6. City Council / final decision authority
7. Recording
8. Building permit

Timeline: 3-12+ months depending on complexity.

Owner advocacy

• Be on Owner's team for entitlement process
• But maintain professionalism
• Don't misrepresent or oversell
• Reveal all relevant facts to AHJ
• Building relationships with planning staff valuable

Documentation

• Keep all submission materials
• Document meetings with planning staff
• Track decisions and conditions
• Verify final approval before proceeding

Floodplain development

• FEMA FIRM identifies zones
• 100-year (1% annual chance) regulated
• Lowest floor at or above Base Flood Elevation (BFE) + freeboard (typically +1 ft)
• V-zones (coastal): stricter, open foundations, flood-resistant materials
• Floodway: no obstruction
• NFIP compliance + local floodplain ordinance
• Permit from local floodplain administrator

Coastal zones

• Coastal Zone Management Act
• State coastal program
• Setback from mean high water line
• Erosion control
• Dune protection
• Salt-resistant materials
• Stricter wind design (HVHZ)

Historic districts

• National Register vs state vs local
• Local historic district often most restrictive
• Certificate of Appropriateness (COA) required for exterior changes
• Approval per local Historic Preservation Commission
• Design guidelines apply
• Interior typically less regulated than exterior

Section 106 (federal)

• For federally-funded or permitted projects
• Consultation with State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO)
• Identify historic properties
• Assess effects
• Resolve adverse effects
• Document agreements

Wetlands

• Clean Water Act §404 — USACE permits
• EPA enforcement
• Defined by hydrology, soils, vegetation
• Permits required for dredging/filling
• Mitigation may require replacement wetlands at higher ratios (1.5:1 to 3:1)
• Federal felony to develop without permit

Endangered species

• Endangered Species Act (federal)
• State threatened/endangered lists
• Habitat assessment
• USFWS consultation if federal nexus
• "Take" prohibited (harm, harass, kill)
• Section 7 consultation for federal projects

Cultural resources

• National Historic Preservation Act
• Archaeological resources
• Tribal Historic Preservation Office consultation
• Phase I archaeological survey if needed
• Mitigation (data recovery) for unavoidable impacts

Hazardous materials

• CERCLA (Superfund) — federal cleanup
• RCRA — hazardous waste management
• TSCA — toxic substances
• State versions of each
• Phase I → Phase II → Phase III progression
• Liability transfers with property (caveat emptor)

Stormwater regulations

• NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System)
• MS4 permits for jurisdictions
• §402 discharge permits
• §404 wetland fill permits
• State + local additional requirements
• Construction stormwater management plan often required
• Post-construction water quality treatment

Easements (existing on site)

• Utility (electric, water, sewer, gas, communications)
• Access (driveway, ingress/egress)
• Drainage (stormwater flow)
• Conservation (preserve open space)
• View (rare)
• Building cannot encroach on easements without permission
• Some easements release able with utility approval

Right-of-way work permits

• For work in public ROW (sidewalk, street)
• Separate from building permit
• Often DPW or transportation department
• Traffic control plan may be required
• Bond may be required for restoration

Air quality permits

• For sources of emissions (manufacturing, large boilers)
• Federal (EPA) and state programs
• Construction air permits sometimes
• Title V permits for major sources
• Permit conditions can affect design

Demolition

• Asbestos abatement (NESHAP requirements)
• Lead paint (RRP rule for renovation)
• Demolition permits
• Historic preservation review may apply
• Recycling/disposal of materials
• Erosion control during demolition

Site selection priorities (LEED LT/SS)

• Infill or brownfield preferred over greenfield
• Transit access (reduce VMT)
• Walkability (active mobility, services nearby)
• Existing infrastructure (sewer, water, electric, roads)
• Avoid: prime farmland, sensitive habitats, floodplains, steep slopes

Site disturbance minimization

• Reduce footprint of disturbance
• Preserve trees (critical root zone protection)
• Preserve topsoil for reuse
• Stabilize quickly to prevent erosion
• Limit clearing only to needed area

Stormwater management (BMPs)

Structural:

• Detention basins (release at pre-dev rate)
• Retention basins (permanent storage)
• Bioswales (vegetated channels)
• Permeable paving (infiltration)
• Green roofs (storage + ET)
• Rain gardens (small-scale infiltration)
• Cisterns (capture + reuse)
• Sand filters (water quality treatment)

Nonstructural:

• Preserve existing vegetation
• Native landscaping
• Low-impact development principles
• Disconnect impervious surfaces from drainage system
• Increase pervious surface

Heat island mitigation

• Cool roofs (high SRI — Solar Reflectance Index)
• Cool paving (high albedo)
• Tree canopy (shading + ET cooling)
• Green roofs
• Reduced parking (less impervious)
• Shaded outdoor spaces

Cool roof requirements

• LEED v4.1: SRI ≥29 (low-sloped), ≥39 (steep)
• Energy codes have specific thresholds
• White TPO/PVC easily exceeds (SRI 80+)
• Modified bitumen with cap can achieve

Vegetation strategies

• Native plants: adapted to climate, low water, support pollinators, biodiversity
• Drought-tolerant: appropriate for arid climates
• Edible landscape: where feasible
• Pollinator gardens: declining species support
• Biodiversity: variety of species
• No invasive species: legal in some states

Tree preservation

• Drip-line fencing during construction
• No soil disturbance within critical root zone
• Arborist supervision for root pruning if needed
• Monitor health during construction
• Replace damaged trees in similar size/species
• Mature trees take decades to replace

Light pollution control

• Full cut-off fixtures (0% above horizontal)
• Shielding
• IES dark sky compliance
• Light levels appropriate (not over-lit)
• Lighting curfews (off late at night)
• Dark sky ordinances in some jurisdictions
• LEED v4.1 SS credit available

Water reduction

• Native landscape (low/no irrigation)
• Drip irrigation (not overhead spray)
• Greywater reuse (where allowed)
• Rainwater harvesting
• Permeable surfaces
• Smart irrigation controllers
• WaterSense fixtures interior

Walkable site

• Walk to transit (≤1/4 mi or 1/2 mi)
• Walk to amenities (food, services)
• Internal pedestrian network
• Connected to neighborhood walks
• Pedestrian safety (lighting, sight lines)
• Bicycle access and parking

Site for active design

• Visible, accessible stairs
• Outdoor spaces for activity
• Bike facilities
• Walking paths
• Fitness amenities integrated
• WELL Building Standard guidance

Construction sustainability

• Erosion + sedimentation control plan
• Material reuse/recycling (target 75%+ diversion)
• Local materials (within 500 miles ideal)
• Low-VOC materials
• Tree protection during construction
• Avoid soil compaction (limit equipment routes)

Post-construction

• Monitoring requirements (some BMPs)
• Owner education
• Maintenance plan
• Performance verification (LEED reviews actual data)

ICC I-Codes

Published by International Code Council, 3-year cycle:

• IBC — International Building Code
• IRC — International Residential Code (1-2 family)
• IECC — International Energy Conservation Code
• IFC — International Fire Code
• IMC — International Mechanical Code
• IPC — International Plumbing Code
• IFGC — International Fuel Gas Code
• IGCC — International Green Construction Code
• IEBC — International Existing Building Code
• ICCPC — Performance Code

Adoption process

• ICC publishes model code (every 3 years)
• States adopt with amendments (state-specific changes)
• Localities may adopt state version with further amendments
• Always confirm jurisdiction's current adopted version + local amendments

Florida specifics

• Florida Building Code (FBC) — based on IBC with substantial amendments
• Updated every 3 years
• HVHZ (Miami-Dade, Broward) — stricter
• Wind requirements particularly elevated
• Energy efficiency code (FBC Energy Conservation)

Code edition timing

• Newer editions take 1-3 years to be adopted
• Some jurisdictions stick with older (cost of training, software)
• Always confirm CURRENT version + amendments
• Pre-application meeting helpful to clarify

NFPA Standards (most relevant)

• NFPA 13 — Sprinkler installation
• NFPA 14 — Standpipes
• NFPA 72 — Fire alarm
• NFPA 80 — Fire doors
• NFPA 90A — HVAC for fire safety
• NFPA 101 — Life Safety Code (alternative to IBC chapter 10)
• NFPA 110 — Emergency power
• NFPA 5000 — Building Construction Code (alternative to IBC, less common)

Some jurisdictions adopt NFPA 101 over IBC Chapter 10 for life safety; check.

ADA & accessibility standards

• 2010 ADA Standards — Federal (DOJ)
• A117.1 — ANSI accessible standard referenced by IBC
• State accessibility codes — sometimes stricter
• FBC Accessibility Code — Florida specific

Other key references

• ASHRAE 90.1 — Energy Standard (referenced by IECC and LEED)
• ASHRAE 62.1 — Ventilation for IAQ
• ASHRAE 55 — Thermal comfort
• ASTM — Various test standards
• ANSI — Various standards
• UL — Product listing and labeling
• FM Global — Insurance-related approvals

Performance vs prescriptive codes

• Prescriptive: explicit requirements (this material, this dimension)
• Performance: outcome required (achieve fire resistance per test)
• IBC is primarily prescriptive with performance options
• Performance code (ICCPC) used for unusual buildings

Alternative methods (IBC §104.11)

• Designer can propose alternative method
• Must demonstrate equivalent compliance with code intent
• AHJ approval required
• Useful for innovative designs, mass timber, etc.

Existing building work

• IEBC governs additions, alterations, repairs
• Three compliance methods:
  1. Prescriptive Compliance Method (Chapter 4)
  2. Work Area Compliance Method (Chapter 5-9) — most common
  3. Performance Compliance Method (Chapter 10)
• Less stringent than new construction (with conditions)

Historic buildings

• Historic Code (IBC §1209/IEBC ch 11)
• Alternative compliance for historic preservation
• Document significant features for preservation
• Allow more flexibility for accessibility, code compliance
• Coordinate with historic preservation review

Code analysis documentation

• Building data: occupancy, construction type, building area, height, stories
• Code references for each decision
• Occupant load calculations
• Egress capacity calculations
• Allowable area calculations (including increases)
• Mixed occupancy strategy
• Fire ratings of major assemblies
• Accessibility scoping
• Energy code compliance path

Three strategies (IBC §508)

Accessory Occupancy (§508.2)

• Subordinate to major occupancy
• Up to 10% of building area
• Same construction type, allowable area, height
• No fire-rated separation required
• Example: small office (B) within retail (M) main use

Separated Occupancies (§508.4)

• Each occupancy meets its own requirements
• Fire-rated separations per Table 508.4 between
• Each occupancy area limited per allowable area for its construction type
• Sum of (actual area / allowable area) ≤ 1.0

Separation ratings (Table 508.4) — partial examples:
| | A | B | E | F-1 | I-2 | R |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| A | — | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
| B | 1 | — | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| F-1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | — | 3 | 2 |
| H-1 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
Sprinklers can reduce separations.

Nonseparated Occupancies (§508.3)

• Entire building meets most stringent requirements of any included occupancy
• No fire-rated separation between
• Simpler design but conservative
• Example: B + A nonseparated → A's stricter travel distance applies throughout

How to choose

Strategy selection example

5,000 SF office (B) + 1,000 SF restaurant (A-2) building:

• Accessory doesn't work — A-2 is 17% of total
• Nonseparated: A-2 requirements apply throughout (lower travel distance, stricter egress, etc.)
• Separated: 1-hr separation between B and A-2 per Table 508.4 (sprinklered)

Vertical separation

• Mixed occupancies on different stories
• Often separated (e.g., retail ground floor, residential above)
• 2-hr horizontal separation typical (per Table 508.4)
• Sometimes more (residential over retail commonly 2-hr)

Common combinations

Important nuances

• Hazardous occupancies: must be separated (cannot be nonseparated)
• I occupancies: stricter rules, often separated
• Special use (atria, malls, covered mall buildings): own code sections

Atria (§404)

Open vertical opening connecting 2+ stories:

• Smoke control system
• Sprinklered
• Limited materials (Class A finishes)
• Limited connection to occupancies
• 1-hr separation from areas at upper levels

Mall (§402, covered mall buildings)

Mixed-use shopping with covered pedestrian area:

• Special construction type allowed (Type II-B, III-B, IV-HT, V-B)
• Limited area (per IBC §402.6.2)
• Sprinklered
• Special egress provisions

Strategy documentation

• Show on Code Compliance plan
• Identify each area's occupancy
• Identify separation strategy
• Show fire ratings of separations
• Calculate allowable area per strategy
• Confirm all requirements met

Travel distance limits (sprinklered)

Non-sprinklered distances significantly shorter.

Common Path of Egress Travel (CPET)

Distance from any point to where 2 distinct exits become available:

• Sprinklered B, M, R-1, R-2, R-4, S: 100 ft
• Non-sprinklered B: 75 ft
• H occupancies: 25-75 ft
• Limited paths increase risk if blocked

Dead-end corridors

Number of exits

Single-exit spaces allowed per Table 1006.2.1 (limited occupancy + travel).

Exit access doorways arrangement

Two doorways required:

• Separated by at least 1/2 of overall diagonal of room (without sprinklers)
• Separated by at least 1/3 of overall diagonal (sprinklered)
• Prevents one fire blocking both doorways

Corridor widths

Door swing direction

Required in direction of egress when:

• Occupant load 50+
• Group H any
• Horizontal exit
• Exit discharge
• Below 50 occupants: any direction generally OK

Door size & clearance

• Minimum 32" clear width (measured at 90° open)
• 36" leaf typical
• Pair of doors: 48" min total clear when one leaf used (double-acting)
• Door height: 80" min
• Maneuvering clearance per ADA (different for push/pull, latch/hinge side)

Panic hardware

Required:

• Group A, E doors
• Doors serving 50+ occupants
• Doors in egress paths from such spaces
• High-hazard occupancies
• Max 15 lb operating force

Stair requirements

• Tread depth: 11" min (commercial)
• Riser height: 4-7" uniform
• Width: 44" min (88" for 50+ occ); 36" for limited occ
• Headroom: 6'-8" min
• Handrails: both sides, 34-38" high, continuous, extend 12" beyond top, depth+12" beyond bottom
• Landings: every direction change, top, bottom

Exit enclosure

• Fire-rated walls (1-hr if <4 stories, 2-hr if 4+ stories)
• Self-closing doors (rated per wall)
• No penetrations except plumbing for fire suppression
• Continuous to exit discharge
• Pressurization for high-rise smoke control

Horizontal exits

• Pass through fire wall to compartment on same level
• Both compartments must have own egress
• Acceptable for up to 50% of required exits
• Common in hospitals (defend-in-place strategy)

Areas of refuge / accessible egress

• For wheelchair users in multi-story buildings
• Per IBC §1009
• Smoke-protected area near accessible exit
• Two-way communication
• Required when accessible levels not at exit discharge
• Stairs serving 4+ stories: areas of refuge or sprinklered alternatives

Means of egress lighting (§1008)

• Required: 1 fc avg, 0.1 fc min at floor
• Emergency power 90+ minutes
• Tested per NFPA 101 (monthly visual, annual full duration)

Exit signs

• Visible from all egress paths
• Internally or externally illuminated
• Distinct color (typically red or green)
• Emergency power backup

Group A — Assembly (50+ occupants)

Group B — Business

Offices, banks, civic admin, professional services, outpatient clinics ≤5 patients

Group E — Educational

K-12 schools. Daycare 5+ kids over 2.5 yrs (younger kids → I-4)

Group F — Factory/Industrial

• F-1: Moderate hazard (most manufacturing)
• F-2: Low hazard (glass, ceramics, ice)

Group H — High Hazard

• H-1: Detonation
• H-2: Deflagration
• H-3: Readily combustible
• H-4: Health hazards
• H-5: Semiconductor fab

Group I — Institutional

• I-1: Assisted, ambulatory (17+)
• I-2: Medical care 24hr, non-ambulatory
• I-3: Restrained (jails, prisons)
• I-4: Day care 6+

Group M — Mercantile

Retail, markets, motor vehicle showrooms

Group R — Residential

• R-1: Transient (hotels)
• R-2: Multi-family (apartments)
• R-3: 1-2 family (use IRC)
• R-4: Residential care (5-16)

Group S — Storage

• S-1: Moderate hazard
• S-2: Low hazard

Group U — Utility

Accessory buildings, sheds, towers, tanks

IBC Table 1004.5 (key values, SF/occupant)

Assembly

Business

Educational

Mercantile / Other

Calculation

Occupant Load = Area ÷ Factor

3,000 SF office: 3,000 ÷ 150 = 20 occupants
3,000 SF restaurant (tables): 3,000 ÷ 15 = 200 occupants

Five primary types

Type I — Non-combustible, protected

• Highest fire resistance
• Steel + spray fireproofing, or concrete
• I-A: 3-hr structural, 2-hr floors
• I-B: 2-hr structural, 2-hr floors
• Allows tallest, largest buildings

Type II — Non-combustible

• II-A: 1-hr structural, 1-hr floors
• II-B: No rating required
• Steel without fireproofing = II-B

Type III — Non-combustible exterior + combustible interior

• III-A: 1-hr exterior bearing walls
• III-B: 2-hr exterior bearing walls only
• Wood-framed buildings with non-combustible exterior

Type IV — Heavy Timber / Mass Timber

• Min dimensions: cols 8×8 (or 7×9), beams 6×10, decks 3" T&G
• IV-HT (traditional)
• IV-A, IV-B, IV-C (mass timber, 2021 IBC) - up to 18 stories

Type V — Combustible

• V-A: 1-hr rated structure
• V-B: No rating required
• Standard wood-framed construction

Trade-offs

Bulk controls

• FAR (Floor Area Ratio): Total floor / lot area
• Lot coverage: Footprint / lot area (%)
• Height limit: Max building height
• Setbacks: Front, side, rear distances
• Open space: Min % undeveloped
• Density: Units per acre (residential)

Use controls

• Permitted uses — allowed by-right
• Conditional uses — allowed with approval
• Special exceptions — narrower than conditional
• Accessory uses — incidental to primary
• Nonconforming — grandfathered

Variances

• Use variance: Different use; requires hardship
• Area variance: Dimensional; more common
• Special Use Permit: Conditional use process

Special districts

• PUD — Planned Unit Development
• TOD — Transit-Oriented Development
• Historic — preservation overlay
• Floodplain — FEMA-tied overlay
• Airport — height/use restrictions
• Form-based — emphasizes physical form over use

Process

1. Pre-application meeting
2. Submit application
3. Staff review
4. Planning Commission hearing
5. City Council approval (if needed)
6. Public notice/hearings throughout

Pena's five steps

1. Establish goals
2. Collect & analyze facts
3. Uncover & test concepts
4. Determine needs
5. State the problem

Four considerations

• Function
• Form
• Economy
• Time

Net-to-gross ratios

• Office: 75–85%
• Hospital: 50–60%
• School: 60–70%
• Lab: 55–65%
• Hotel: 65–75%

Key terms

• Setback — required distance from property line
• FAR — Floor Area Ratio = floor area ÷ lot area
• Lot coverage — % of lot building can cover
• Height limit — max building height, often by zone
• Easement — right of another to use part of property
• ROW — public right-of-way

Variances

• Use variance — different use than zoned (hard to get)
• Area variance — deviates from dimensional req (more common)
• Special Use Permit — allowed use with conditional approval
• PUD — negotiated departures from zoning for design quality

Three primary classifications

1. Occupancy — A, B, E, F, H, I, M, R, S, U
2. Construction Type — I through V (A protected / B unprotected)
3. Size — height (stories/feet) + area per floor

Construction types

• I — Non-combustible, protected
• II — Non-combustible
• III — Non-comb exterior, comb interior
• IV — Heavy timber / mass timber
• V — Combustible (wood)

Mixed occupancy approaches

• Accessory — minor occupancy ≤10% of floor
• Non-separated — most restrictive applies
• Separated — rated separations between

Slope buildability

• 0–5%: Easily buildable
• 5–10%: Buildable; some grading
• 10–25%: Stepped construction, retaining walls
• 25%+: Challenging; often unbuildable

Sun path (N hemisphere)

• Summer solstice: Rises NE, sets NW, highest angle
• Equinox: Rises due E, sets due W
• Winter solstice: Rises SE, sets SW, lowest angle

Soil bearing (best to worst)

Bedrock → Gravel → Sand → Silt → Clay → Organic/Fill